Mudinthathu kathai
ஞாயிறு, 30 நவம்பர், 2008
செவ்வாய், 18 நவம்பர், 2008
திங்கள், 3 நவம்பர், 2008
வியாழன், 30 அக்டோபர், 2008
செவ்வாய், 2 செப்டம்பர், 2008
திங்கள், 1 செப்டம்பர், 2008
வியாழன், 28 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
செவ்வாய், 26 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
சனி, 23 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
வியாழன், 21 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
புதன், 20 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
சனி, 16 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
வியாழன், 14 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
Independence day Celebration 2008
Independence day Celebration 2008 @ Emerald Vally Public School, Salem
வியாழன், 7 ஆகஸ்ட், 2008
மீன் தலை கறி
யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவுப் பழக்கம் என்பது யாழ்ப்பாணச் சமுதாயத்தினரிடையே நிலவுகின்ற, பரவலான உணவு தொடர்பான பழக்க வழக்கங்களைக் குறிக்கின்றது. யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவுப் பழக்கமானது, இலங்கையில் வாழுகின்ற ஏனைய தமிழ்ப் பிரிவினரிடமிருந்தோ, இலங்கையின் பிற சமூகத்தவரின் பழக்கங்களிலிருந்தோ அல்லது ஒட்டுமொத்தத் தமிழரின் உணவுப் பழக்கங்களில் இருந்தோ அடிப்படையில் வேறுபடுகின்றது என்று சொல்லமுடியாது. எனினும், பல நூற்றாண்டுகளாக, யாழ்ப்பாணச் சமுதாயம் உட்பட்டு வருகின்ற பலவகையான அக, மற்றும் புறத் தாக்கங்களின் காரணமாக, அதன் உணவுப் பழக்கங்களில் பல தனித்துவமான பண்புகள் காணப்படுகின்றன.
யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவுப் பழக்கம் என்று கூறுவதனால், யாழ்ப்பாணத்தவர் அனைவரும் ஒரே மாதிரியான உணவுப் பழக்கத்தைக் கொண்டுள்ளனர் என்று கூறுவதற்கில்லை. ஏனைய பல சமுதாயங்களின் உணவுப் பழக்கங்களைப் போலவே யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவுப் பழக்கமும், அச்சமூகத்தின் பல்வேறு பிரிவினரிடையே பல அடிப்படைகளில், வேறுபடுவதைக் காணலாம். ஆனாலும், இவை அனைத்தையும், ஒன்றாகவே இயங்குகின்ற முழு யாழ்ப்பாணச் சமுதாய அமைப்பினதும் கூறுகளாகப் பார்ப்பதன் மூலமே புரிந்து கொள்ளமுடியும்.
தோற்றுவாய்
யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவுப் பழக்கங்களின் தோற்றுவாய் பண்டைக்காலத் தமிழர் உணவுப் பழக்கங்களாகவே இருக்கும் எனலாம். இது குறித்த ஆய்வுகள் எதுவும் நடத்தப்பட்டதாகத் தெரியவில்லை. ஆனாலும், பல நூற்றாண்டுகளாகவே யாழ்ப்பாணத்துக்கு, தென்னிந்தியாவின் பல பகுதிகளில் இருந்தும் நேரடிக் குடியேற்றங்கள் இருந்து வந்துள்ளதுடன், பண்பாட்டுத் தொடர்புகளும், வணிகத் தொடர்புகளும் தொடர்ச்சியாக இருந்து வந்துள்ளன. இதனால், தமிழ் நாடு தவிர்ந்த பிற தென்னிந்தியப் பண்பாட்டுக் கூறுகளையும், யாழ்ப்பாண உணவுப் பழக்கங்களில் காண முடிகின்றது. இதைவிட, இலங்கையின் பெரும்பான்மை இனமான சிங்களவரின் பண்பாட்டுத் தாக்கங்கள் சிலவும் இருக்கவே செய்கின்றன. பிற்காலத்தில் பல நூற்றாண்டுகளாக யாழ்ப்பாணத்தை ஆண்டுவந்த போத்துக்கீசர், ஒல்லாந்தர், ஆங்கிலேயர் போன்றவர்களின் காலங்களில் அறிமுகப்படுத்தப்பட்ட உணவு வகைகளும், பழக்க வழக்கங்களும் கூட யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவுப் பழக்கங்களில் கலந்துள்ளதைக் காணமுடியும்.
இவற்றைவிட யாழ்ப்பாணத்துப் புவியியல் அமைப்பு, வளங்கள், பல்வேறு வகையான வேளாண்மை உற்பத்திகளுக்கான வாய்ப்புக்கள், உணவுப்பொருள் தொடர்பான வணிகம் என்பனவும், யாழ்ப்பாணத்து நில உடைமை மற்றும் நிலப்பயன்பாட்டு நிலைமைகளும் உணவுப் பழக்கவழக்கங்களில் தாக்கங்களை உண்டாக்கும் காரணிகளாக இருக்கின்றன. இவற்றுடன், சமய நம்பிக்கைகளும் இன்னொரு முக்கிய காரணியாகும்.
காலத்துக்குக் காலம் யாழ்ப்பாணத்தை ஆண்ட ஆட்சியாளர்களின், வேளாண்மை மற்றும் வணிகம் தொடர்பான கொள்கைகளும், போர் முதலியவற்றினால், ஏற்றுமதி செய்யும் நாடுகளிலிருந்து உணவுப் பொருட்களை இறக்குமதி செய்யமுடியாதிருந்த நிலைமைகளும்கூட உள்ளூர் உணவுப் பழக்கங்களில் குறிப்பிடத்தக்க மாற்றங்களை உண்டாக்கியுள்ளன.
[தொகு] அன்றாட உணவுப்பழக்க வேறுபாடுகளுக்கான பின்னணிகள்
முன்னர் எடுத்துக்காட்டியவை சமுதாயத்தில், பரந்த அடிப்படையில், எல்லாப் பிரிவினரையும் பாதிக்கின்ற காரணிகளாக உள்ளன. அதே வேளை, சமூகப் பிரிவுகள் மட்டத்தில் காணப்படும் வேறுபாடுகளுக்கு அடிப்படையாகப் பின்வரும் காரணிகள் அமைகின்றன.
- சமூக அமைப்பு
- தொழில்
- பொருளாதார நிலை
- சமூக அந்தஸ்த்து
- வாழிடச் சூழல்
[தொகு] உணவு நேரங்கள்
யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் மூன்று நேர உணவு உட்கொள்ளுவதே பொதுவான வழக்கு. பொருளாதாரச் சூழ்நிலைகள் காரணமாக மூன்று முறைகளிலும் குறைவாக உணவு உண்ணுபவர்களும் இருக்கிறார்கள். இந்துக்கள் சிலர் விரத நாட்களில் காலை உணவைத் தவிர்த்துவிடுவது உண்டு. மூன்று நேர உணவுகளும்,
- காலை உணவு
- மதிய உணவு
- இரவு உணவு
எனப்படுகின்றன. காலை உணவுக்கு முன்னரும், மேலும் மூன்று உணவு நேர இடைவெளிகளில் இருமுறையும் தேநீர் அல்லது காப்பி அருந்துகிறார்கள்.
யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் பாடசாலைகளும், அலுவலகங்களும் 8.30 அல்லது அதற்கு முன்னரே பெரும்பாலும் திறந்து விடுவதால், மாணவரும், அலுவலகங்களில் வேலை செய்வோரும் அந்த நேரத்துக்கு முன்னரே காலை உணவு உண்டு விடுகிறாகள். அலுவலகங்களில் 12.00 க்கும் 1.00 மணிக்கும் இடையில் மதிய உணவு நேரம். பாடசாலைகள் 2.00 மணிக்கே மூடப்படுவதால் மாணவர்கள் அதன் பின்னரே மதிய உணவு உட்கொள்ளுகிறார்கள்.
[தொகு] அன்றாட உணவு வகைகள்
யாழ்ப்பாணத்தின் முதன்மை உணவு, ஏனைய ஆசிய நாடுகளில் இருப்பதைப் போல, அரிசிச் சோறு ஆகும். அரிசி, யாழ்ப்பாணக் குடாநாட்டில் குறைந்த அளவிலும், தலை நில வன்னிப் பகுதியில் பெருமளவும் நீண்டகாலமாகவே செய்கை பண்ணப்பட்டு வந்தது. ஐரோப்பியப் படைகளின் ஆக்கிரமிப்பும், அக்காலங்களில் அடிக்கடி ஏற்பட்ட காலரா முதலிய கொள்ளை நோய்களும், வன்னிக் குடியேற்றங்களைப் பெருமளவில் இல்லாது ஒழித்ததுடன், பெருமளவில் அரிசியை இறக்குமதி செய்யவேண்டிய நிலை ஏற்பட்டது. எனினும் அரிசியே தொடர்ந்தும் விருப்பத்துக்குரிய உணவாக இருந்து வந்தது.
உலக யுத்தக்காலத்தில், அரிசிக்கு வெளிநாட்டுச் சந்தைகளில் நிலவிய தட்டுப்பாடு காரணமாக, அப்போதைய ஆங்கிலேய அரசு, கோதுமையை அறிமுகப்படுத்தியது. இது அரிசியின் முதன்மை நிலையை மாற்றாவிட்டாலும், பின்வந்த காலங்களின் யாழ்ப்பாண உணவு முறைகளில் நிலையான தாக்கங்களை ஏற்படுத்தியது எனலாம். யாழ்ப்பாணத்தவர்களால் பாண் (bread) என்று அழைக்கப்படும் கோதுமை உணவு அப்பிரதேச உணவில் முக்கிய இடம் பெற்றது அதன் பின்னரேயாகும். அது மட்டுமன்றி, சிற்றுண்டிகள் செய்வதில் பயன்பட்ட அரிசி மாவுக்கும், குரக்கன் முதலிய சிறு தானியங்களுக்கும், மாற்றாகக் கோதுமை மா (மாவு) பயன்படத் தொடங்கியது.
[தொகு] யாழ்ப்பாணத்து உணவு வகைகள்
[தொகு] முதன்மை உணவு
யாழ்ப்பாணத்து முதன்மை உணவு சோறும் கறியும் ஆகும். யாழ்ப்பாணத்தவர், நெல்லை அவித்துக் (புழுக்கி) குற்றிப் பெறப்படும் புழுங்கல் அரிசிச் சோற்றையே அதிகம் விரும்புகிறார்கள். இதைத் தவிர, நெல்லை அவிக்காமல் குற்றும்போது கிடைக்கும், சிவப்புப் பச்சை அரிசி, வெள்ளைப் பச்சை அரிசி[1] என்பவற்றிலும் சோறு ஆக்குவது உண்டு. தமிழ் நாட்டில் செய்வதுபோல, அரிசியிலிருந்து, புளியோதரை, சாம்பார்சாதம், தயிர்சாதம் என்னும் உணவு வகைகள் யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் பெரும்பாலும் செய்யப்படுவதில்லை.
சோற்றுடன் சேர்த்துச் சாப்பிடும் கறி வகைகள் மரக்கறி வகைகளாகவோ, மாமிச உணவு [2]வகைகளாகவோ இருக்கலாம்.
[தொகு] கறிவகைகள்
சோற்றுடன் சேர்த்துச் சாப்பிடுவதற்காக காய்கறிகள், இலைவகைகள், மீன், மாமிசம் போன்றவற்றைப் பயன்படுத்தி ஆக்கப்படுபவை கறிகள் எனப்படுகின்றன. யாழ்ப்பாணத்துக் கறிவகைகளைப் பலவகையாகப் பகுத்துக் காணமுடியும். இவற்றுள் முக்கியமானவை பின்வருமாறு.
- பருப்புக் கடையல்: தோல் அகற்றப்பட்ட, பயறு, மசூர்ப்பருப்பு, துவரம்பருப்பு போன்றவற்றில் ஒன்றைக் குறைந்த நீரில் அவித்துத் தேங்காய்ப் பால், உப்பு மற்றும் சேர்மானங்களுடன், சிறிது நீர்ப்பற்றுள்ளதாகச் செய்யப்படும் கறி இது. சைவச் சாப்பாட்டில் இது முக்கிய இடம் வகிக்கும் ஒரு கறியாகும்.
- குழம்பு: கத்தரிக்காய், வாழைக்காய், உருளைக்கிழங்கு,பூசனிக்காய், பாகற்காய் போன்ற காய், கிழங்கு வகைகளில் ஒன்றை முதன்மையாகச் சேர்த்து, தேங்காய்ப் பால், மிளகாய்த்தூள், பழப்புளி, உப்பு போன்ற சேர்மானங்களுடன் ஆக்கப்படுவது இது. மிளாகாய்த் தூளுக்குரிய சிவப்பு நிறத்தில், கூழ் போன்ற நிலையில் இருக்கும். உறைப்புச் சுவை கொண்டது.
- வரட்டல் தூள் கறி (கூட்டுக்கறி): குழம்பு ஆக்குவதற்கான சேர்மானங்களே இதற்கும் பயன்படுகின்றன. ஆனால், கறி கூழ் நிலையில் இல்லாமல் மேலும் வரண்டு, பசை போன்ற கூட்டில் காய்கறிகள் சேர்ந்த நிலையில் இருக்கும். இதுவும் உறைப்புச் சுவை கொண்டதே.
- பால் கறி (வெள்ளைக் கறி): இதுவும் ஒரு வரட்டல் நிலையிலேயே இருந்தாலும், இதற்கு மிளகாய்த்தூள் சேர்க்கப்படுவதில்லை.
- கீரைக் கடையல்: கீரையை அவித்துத் தேங்காய்ப்பாலுடன் கடைந்து செய்யப்படும் இதற்குப் பெரும்பாலும் புளிக்காக எலுமிச்சம் பழச் சாறு சேர்ப்பார்கள்.
- வறை: சேர்மானங்களை தேங்காய்ப் பூவுடன் சேர்த்து, சிறிதளவு எண்ணையுடன் சேர்த்து வறுப்பதன் மூலம் கிடைப்பது வறை ஆகும். இலை வகைகள், புடோல் போன்ற சில காய் வகைகள் போன்றவை வறை செய்வதற்குப் பயன்படுகின்றன. சுறா போன்ற அசைவ உணவுகளிலும் வறை செய்யப்படுவதுண்டு.
- துவையல்: பருப்புப் போன்றவற்றைத் தேங்காய்ப்பூவுடனும், வேறு சேர்மானங்களுடனும் சேர்த்துத் துவைத்து ஆக்குவது துவையல்.
- சம்பல்: தேங்காய்ப்பூ, புளி, உப்பு, வெங்காயம் என்பவற்றுடன், மிளகாய் அல்லது வேறேதாவது சேர்த்து அம்மியில் அரைப்பதன் மூலம் அல்லது உரலில் இட்டு இடிப்பதன் மூலம் சம்பல் செய்யப்படுகின்றது. மிளகாய் சேர்த்துச் செய்வது மிளாகய்ச் சம்பல். இஞ்சி சேர்க்கும்போது இஞ்சிச் சம்பல் எனப் பலவகைச் சம்பல்கள் பெறப்படுகின்றன. சம்பல் என்ற சொல்லுக்குப் பதிலாக யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் சில இடங்களில் முன்னர் பச்சடி என்றே குறிப்பிட்டு வந்தார்கள். இன்று சம்பல் என்னும் சொல்லே பரவலாக வழங்கப்படுகின்றது. சிங்கள மொழியில் இதனைச் சம்போல என்பார்கள்.
- பொரியல்:வாழைக்காய், மரவள்ளிக் கிழங்கு, உருளைக் கிழங்கு போன்றவற்றைச் சீவல்களாக்கி எண்ணெயில் நன்றாகப் பொர்ப்பதன் மூலம் பொரியல்கள் பெறப்படுகின்றன. அசைவ உணவுகளான, மீன், இறைச்சி என்பவற்றிலும் பொரியல்கள் செய்யப்படுகின்றன.
- சொதி: நீரினால் ஐதாக்கப்பட்ட தேங்காய்ப்பால், உப்பு, வெங்காயம் என்பவற்றைக் கொதிக்கவைத்து, அத்துடன் பழப்புளி அல்லது எலுமிச்சம் சாறு சேர்ப்பதன் மூலம் சொதி ஆக்கப்படுகின்றது.
ஒரு முழுமையான மதிய உணவு என்னும்போது மேலே குறிப்பிட்ட எல்லாவகை உணவுகளும் காணப்படுவதுண்டு. எனினும் அண்றாட உணவுகளில் பெரும்பாலானோர் இவ்வாறான முழுமையான உணவை உண்பதில்லை. விசேட நாட்களில் மட்டும் இவ்வாறு பல்வேறுபட்ட கறிகளுடன் உணவு ஆக்கப்படுவதுண்டு.
கறிகள் ஆக்குவதில், யாழ்ப்பாணத்தவர் தேங்காயை மிக அதிகமாகவே சேர்த்துக் கொள்கிறார்கள். அநேகமாக எல்லாக் கறிகளிலும், தேங்காய்ப்பூவோ, தேங்காய்ப் பாலோ சேர்த்துக்கொள்ளப்படுகிறது. மிளகாய்த்தூளின் பயன்பாடும், தமிழ் நாட்டுச் சமையலோடு ஒப்பிடும்போது அதிகமென்றே கூறலாம். தமிழ் நாட்டின் அதிகம் பயன்படும் சாம்பார் யாழ்ப்பாணத்துச் சமையலில் இடம்பெறுவதில்லை. கோவில்களில் அன்னதானம் செய்பவர்கள் சில சமயங்களில், பல கறிகள் செய்வதைத் தவிர்ப்பதற்காக எல்லாக் காய்களையும் சேர்த்துச் சாம்பார் செய்வது உண்டு.
[தொகு] துணை உணவு வகைகள்
காலைச் சாப்பாட்டிற்கும், சில சமயங்களில் இரவுச் சாப்பாட்டிற்கும் எடுத்துக்கொள்ளப்படுகின்ற உணவு வகைகள் துணை உணவு வகைகள் அல்லது சிற்றுண்டிகள் எனப்படலாம். இந்த விடயத்திலும் தமிழ் நாட்டுக்கும், யாழ்ப்பாணத்துக்கும் இடையே வேறுபாடு காணப்படுகின்றது. தமிழ் நாட்டிலே, இட்லி, தோசை முதலியன முக்கியமான காலை உணவாக இருக்கும் அதே வேளையில், யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் இடியப்பம், பிட்டு முதலியவையே பெரும்பாலும் உண்ணப்படுகின்றன. அப்பம், தோசை முதலியவற்றையும் யாழ்ப்பாணத்தவர் இடையிடையே உண்பது உண்டு. இட்லி மிக அரிதாகவே உட்கொள்ளப்படுகின்றது.
- இடியப்பம்: இடியப்பம் முன்னர் அரிசி மாவில் மட்டுமே செய்யப்பட்டது. கோதுமை மாவின் அறிமுகத்தின் பின்னர், தனிக் கோதுமை மாவிலோ, அரிசியுடன் கலந்தோ இடியப்பம் அவிக்கும் வழக்கம் ஏற்பட்டது. கோதுமை மா மலிவான விலையில் கிடைத்ததும், கோதுமை கலந்த இடியப்பம் மென்மையாக இருந்ததும், கோதுமை இடியப்பம் பிரபலமாகக் காரணமாக அமைந்தது. இடியப்பம் பொதுவாகச் சொதி, சம்பல் ஆகியவற்றுடன் உண்ணப்படுகின்றது. எனினும், வேறு சைவ, அசைவக் கறி வகைகளுடனும் இடியப்பத்தை உண்பதுண்டு.
- பிட்டு: பிட்டு அரிசி மாவில் மட்டுமன்றி, குரக்கன் மா, ஒடியல் மா போன்றவற்றிலும், அவிக்கப்பட்டு வந்தது. இப்பொழுது, கோதுமை கலந்து அவிக்கப்படுவது உண்டு. பிட்டு எந்தக் கறியுடனும் உண்ணப்படக்கூடியது. பிட்டுக்குப் பால் சேர்த்துப் பால் பிட்டு எனவும், சீனி சேர்த்து சீனிப் பிட்டு எனவும் உண்பது உண்டு.
- அப்பம்: ஒரு நாள் முன்னரே அரிசியை ஊறவைத்து இடித்து நீருடன் கலந்து புளிக்கவிட்டு அப்பம் சுடுவார்கள். வெறுமனே சுடப்படும் அப்பம் வெள்ளையப்பம் என்றும், சுடும்போது நடுவிலே தேங்காய்ப் பால் ஊற்றிச் சுடப்படும் அப்பம் பாலப்பம் என்றும் அழைக்கப்படுகின்றது.
- தோசை: யாழ்ப்பாணத்துக் கிராமப் புறங்களிலே சுடப்படுகின்ற தோசை சிறிது வேறுபட்டது. தோசை மாவுக்குச் சிறிது மஞ்சள் சேர்த்துக் கடுகு, மிளகாயும் தாளித்துச் சேர்ப்பார்கள். தமிழ் நாட்டில் உள்ளது போல் நீர்த் தன்மை கொண்ட சட்னி யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் செய்யப்படுவதில்லை. ஆனால் தோசைக்காக வேறு வகையான சம்பல் யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் தயாரிக்கப்படுகின்றது. செத்தல் மிளகாயைப் (காய்ந்த மிளகாய்) பொரித்து, அத்துடன், புளி, உப்பு, வெங்காயம், தேங்காய்ப்பூ சேர்த்து உரலில் இட்டு இடித்துக்கொள்வார்கள். இது சிறிது வரண்டதாகவும், உதிர்கின்ற தன்மை கொண்டதாகவும் இருக்கும்.
- அவித்த கிழங்கு வகைகள்: மரவள்ளிக் கிழங்கு யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் குறிப்பிடத்தக்க அளவில் செய்கை பண்ணப்படும் கிழங்கு வகையாகும். கறியாகவும் சமைத்து உண்னப்படும் இக் கிழங்கை அவித்துக் காலை உணவாக உண்பது உண்டு. இக் கிழங்கு குறைந்த வருமான மட்டங்களில் உள்ளவர்களுக்கு மலிவாகக் கிடைக்ககூடிய ஒரு உணவாகும்.
- பாண் (கோதுமை ரொட்டி): இரண்டாம் உலகப் போர்க் காலத்தில், ஆங்கிலேய ஆட்சியாளர்களால் அறிமுகப்படுத்தப்பட்ட, மேனாட்டு உணவு வகையான இது, யாழ்ப்பாணத்தவரால் பரவலாக உண்ணப்படுகின்ற உணவு வகைகளில் முக்கியமான ஒன்றாக இருக்கிறது. உண்ணுவதற்கான தயார் நிலையிலேயே வருவதாலும், அரச மானியங்கள் மூலமாகப் பாண் மலிவான விலையில் கிடைப்பதாலும் பலரும் இதை விரும்பி உண்கிறார்கள்.
[தொகு] பனம் பண்டங்கள்
பனம் பண்டங்கள் நீண்டகாலமாக யாழ்ப்பாண மக்களின், சிறப்பாகச் சமுதாயத்தின் மத்தியதர மற்றும் கீழ்த்தட்டு மக்களின் உணவுப் பழக்கங்களோடு நெருங்கிய தொடர்பு கொண்டுள்ளன. எவரும் நட்டுப் பராமரித்து வளர்க்காத பனைகள் தாமாகவே வளர்ந்து பயன் தருவதன் மூலம், உணவுக்கான ஒரு மலிவான மூலமாக இருந்திருக்கிறது என்பது வெளிப்படை. பனையிலே உணவுப் பொருள்களுக்கான மூலங்களாக இருப்பவை பனம்பழமும், பனங்கிழங்கும் ஆகும். பனம்பழப் பிழிவை வெயிலில் காயவைப்பது மூலம் பனாட்டு ஆக்கி நீண்டகாலப் பயன்பாட்டுக்காக வைத்திருக்க முடிந்ததும், பனங்கிழங்கையும் அவ்வாறே காயவைத்து, ஒடியலாக்கி வருடக் கணக்கில் பயன்படுத்த முடிந்ததும் அவற்றின் உணவுப்பெறுமானத்தை மேலும் அதிகரித்தன.
-
- ஒடியல் மா உணவுகள்
- ஒடியற் கூழ்
[தொகு] பருகுவதற்கானவை
-
- பழஞ்சோற்றுத் தண்ணீர்
- பால் / மோர்
- கருப்பநீர்
- இளநீர்
- தேநீர்
- காப்பி
- கஞ்சி
[தொகு] பழவகைகள்
[தொகு] இனிப்பு வகைகள் மற்றும் பிற சிற்றுண்டிகள்
-
- பயத்தம் பணியாரம்
- மோதகம் / கொழுக்கட்டை
- அரியதரம்
- அவல்
- சுண்டல்
- பால்ரொட்டி
- முறுக்கு
[தொகு] உணவுக்கான மூலப்பொருட்களும் சேர்மானங்களும்
- அரிசி மற்றும் சிறுதானிய வகைகள் - அரிசி, குரக்கன், வரகு, சாமி, தினை
- பருப்புவகை - பயறு, மசூர்ப்பருப்பு, துவரம்பருப்பு, உழுத்தம்பருப்பு, கடலைப்பருப்பு
- காய்கறிகள் - கத்தரி, வெண்டி, பயற்றை, வாழைக்காய், அவரை, தக்காளி, முருங்கைக்காய்
- அசைவ உணவுகள் - மீன், இறால், கணவாய், நண்டு, கோழி, ஆடு
- கீரை வகைகள் - முளைக்கீரை, முங்கைக்கீரை, பசளிக்கீரை, வல்லாரை, அகத்திக்கீரை
- எண்ணெய் வகை - நல்லெண்ணை, தேங்காய் எண்ணை
- சுவையூட்டற் பொருட்கள் - உப்பு, பழப்புளி, மிளகாய், எலுமிச்சை, மாங்காய், தேங்காய்
- இனிப்பூட்டற் பொருட்கள் - பனங்கட்டி, சர்க்கரை, சீனி<[3]
- வாசனைப் பொருட்கள் - கடுகு, சீரகம், சோம்பு, கொத்தமல்லி, பெருங்காயம்
[தொகு] குறிப்புகள்
- ↑ இங்கே பச்சை என்பது அவிக்காதது (புழுக்காதது) என்பதைக் குறிக்கிறது நிறத்தை அல்ல.
- ↑ யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் சைவ உணவு வகைகளை மரக்கறிச் சாப்பாடு என்றும், அசைவ உணவு வகைகளை மச்சச் சாப்பாடு என்றும் குறிப்பிடுவது வழக்கம்.
- ↑ இலங்கையில் சர்க்கரை என்பது தமிழ்நாட்டில் வெல்லம் என்பதற்கு நிகரானது. அதுபோலத் தமிழ் நாட்டில் சர்க்கரை என்பதையே இலங்கையில் சீனி என்கிறார்கள்
புதன், 30 ஜூலை, 2008
செவ்வாய், 29 ஜூலை, 2008
EVPS Students playing
முகுந்தன் படிக்கும் பள்ளியில் மாணவர்கள் விளையாடும் போது எடுத்த புகைப்படம்
Student activism is work done by students to effect political, environmental, economic, or social change. It has often focused on making changes in schools, such as increasing student influence over curriculum or improving educational funding. In some settings, student groups have had a major role in broader political events[1], as reflected in the youth activism article.
திங்கள், 28 ஜூலை, 2008
Banana
பூ வாழை பழம்
Banana is the common name for a fruit and also the herbaceous plants of the genus Musa which produce the commonly eaten fruit. They are native to the tropical region of Southeast Asia and Australia. Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.[1]
Banana plants are of the family Musaceae. They are cultivated primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent for the production of fibre and as ornamental plants. As the bananas are mainly tall, upright, and fairly sturdy, they are often mistaken for trees, when the truth is the main or upright stem is called a pseudostem, literally meaning "fake stem", which for some species can obtain a height of up to 2–8 m, with leaves of up to 3.5 m in length. Each pseudostem can produce a bunch of yellow, green, or even red bananas before dying and being replaced by another pseudostem.
The banana fruit grow in hanging clusters, with up to 20 fruit to a tier (called a hand), and 3-20 tiers to a bunch. The total of the hanging clusters is known as a bunch, or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kg. The fruit averages 125 g, of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter content. Each individual fruit (known as a banana or 'finger') has a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with a fleshy edible inner portion. Both skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Western cultures generally eat the inside raw and throw away the skin while some Asian cultures generally eat both the skin and inside cooked. Typically, the fruit has numerous strings (called 'phloem bundles') which run between the skin and inner part. Bananas are a valuable source of vitamin B6, vitamin C, and potassium.
Bananas are grown in at least 107 countries.[2] In popular culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet "dessert" bananas. The bananas from a group of cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. Bananas may also be cut and dried and eaten as a type of chip. Dried bananas are also ground into banana flour.
Although the wild species have fruits with numerous large, hard seeds, virtually all culinary bananas have seedless fruits. Bananas are classified either as dessert bananas (meaning they are yellow and fully ripe when eaten) or as green cooking bananas. Almost all export bananas are of the dessert types; however, only about 10-15% of all production is for export, with the United States and European Union being the dominant buyers.
Banana plants are of the family Musaceae. They are cultivated primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent for the production of fibre and as ornamental plants. As the bananas are mainly tall, upright, and fairly sturdy, they are often mistaken for trees, when the truth is the main or upright stem is called a pseudostem, literally meaning "fake stem", which for some species can obtain a height of up to 2–8 m, with leaves of up to 3.5 m in length. Each pseudostem can produce a bunch of yellow, green, or even red bananas before dying and being replaced by another pseudostem.
The banana fruit grow in hanging clusters, with up to 20 fruit to a tier (called a hand), and 3-20 tiers to a bunch. The total of the hanging clusters is known as a bunch, or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kg. The fruit averages 125 g, of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter content. Each individual fruit (known as a banana or 'finger') has a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with a fleshy edible inner portion. Both skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Western cultures generally eat the inside raw and throw away the skin while some Asian cultures generally eat both the skin and inside cooked. Typically, the fruit has numerous strings (called 'phloem bundles') which run between the skin and inner part. Bananas are a valuable source of vitamin B6, vitamin C, and potassium.
Bananas are grown in at least 107 countries.[2] In popular culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet "dessert" bananas. The bananas from a group of cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. Bananas may also be cut and dried and eaten as a type of chip. Dried bananas are also ground into banana flour.
Although the wild species have fruits with numerous large, hard seeds, virtually all culinary bananas have seedless fruits. Bananas are classified either as dessert bananas (meaning they are yellow and fully ripe when eaten) or as green cooking bananas. Almost all export bananas are of the dessert types; however, only about 10-15% of all production is for export, with the United States and European Union being the dominant buyers.
Botany
Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (June 2008)
The banana plant is a pseudostem that grows to 6 to 7.6 metres (20-25 feet) tall, growing from a corm. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (9 ft) long and 60 cm (2 ft) wide.[3] The banana plant is the largest of all herbaceous plants.[4] A single, sterile, male banana flower, also known as the banana heart is normally produced by each stem (though on rare occasions more can be produced - a single plant in the Philippines has five[5]). Banana hearts are used as a vegetable in Southeast Asia, steamed, in salads or eaten raw.[6] The female flowers are produced further up the stem and produce the actual fruit without requiring fertilization.
Properties
'Cavendish' bananas in a grocery store
Banana, raw, edible partsNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 90 kcal 370 kJ
Carbohydrates
22.84 g
- Sugars 12.23 g
- Dietary fiber 2.6 g
Fat
0.33 g
Protein
1.09 g
Vitamin A equiv. 3 μg
0%
Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.031 mg
2%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.073 mg
5%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.665 mg
4%
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg
7%
Vitamin B6 0.367 mg
28%
Folate (Vit. B9) 20 μg
5%
Vitamin C 8.7 mg
15%
Calcium 5 mg
1%
Iron 0.26 mg
2%
Magnesium 27 mg
7%
Phosphorus 22 mg
3%
Potassium 358 mg
8%
Zinc 0.15 mg
1%
One banana is 100–150 g.Percentages are relative to USrecommendations for adults.Source: USDA Nutrient database
Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple and red. Bananas can be eaten raw though some varieties are generally cooked first. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Unripe or green bananas and plantains are used for cooking various dishes such as banana pudding and are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Banana sap is extremely sticky and can be used as a practical adhesive. Sap can be obtained from the pseudostem, from the fruit peelings, or from the fruit flesh.
Most production for local sale is of green cooking bananas and plantains, as ripe dessert bananas are easily damaged while being transported to market. Even when transported only within their country of origin, ripe bananas suffer a high rate of damage and loss.
The commercial dessert cultivars most commonly eaten in temperate countries (species Musa acuminata or the hybrid Musa × paradisiaca, a cultigen) are imported in large quantities from the tropics. They are popular in part because, being a non-seasonal crop, they are available fresh year-round. In global commerce, by far the most important of these banana cultivars is 'Cavendish', which accounts for the vast bulk of bananas exported from the tropics. The Cavendish gained popularity in the 1950s after the previously mass produced cultivar, Gros Michel, became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which attacks the roots of the banana plant.
The most important properties making 'Cavendish' the main export banana are related to transport and shelf life rather than taste; major commercial cultivars rarely have a superior flavour compared to the less widespread cultivars. Export bananas are picked green, and then usually ripened in ripening rooms when they arrive in their country of destination. These are special rooms made air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", however, and may show up at the supermarket still fully green. While these bananas will ripen more slowly, the flavour will be notably richer, and the banana peel can be allowed to reach a yellow/brown speckled phase, and yet retain a firm flesh inside. Thus, shelf life is somewhat extended. The flavour and texture of bananas are affected by the temperature at which they ripen. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (57 and 59 °F) during transportation. At lower temperatures, the ripening of bananas permanently stalls, and the bananas will eventually turn grey.
It should be noted that Musa × paradisiaca is also the generic name for the common plantain, a coarser and starchier variant not to be confused with Musa acuminata or the Cavendish variety.
M. acuminata x balbisiana inflorescence, partially opened.
In addition to the fruit, the flower of the banana plant (also known as banana blossom or banana heart) is used in Southeast Asian, Tamil, Bengali and Kerala (India) cuisine, either served raw with dips or cooked in soups and curries. The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used, notably in the Burmese dish mohinga, Bengali and Kerala cooking. Bananas fried with batter is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. Banana fritters can be served with ice-cream as well. Bananas are also eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana leaf in Myanmar where bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray is an important part of traditional offerings to the Buddha and the Nats. The juice extract prepared from the tender core is used to treat kidney stones.
The leaves of the banana are large, flexible, and waterproof; they are used in many ways, including as umbrellas and to wrap food for cooking, carrying and packing cooked foods, and they are used to build houses in third world countries.. In south India, food is traditionally served on banana leaves in homes and some restaurants also follow the practice. Some farmers prefer to grow banana plants only for their leaves. Chinese zongzi (bamboo leaves are more commonly used where available). Mexican, and more specifically Oaxacan tamales and a local variety of lamb meat, or barbacoa tacos are often steamed in banana leaves, and the Hawaiian imu is often lined with them. Puerto Rican "pasteles" are boiled wrapped and tied inside the leaf.
Banana chips are a snack (and a healthy alternative to potato chips) produced from dehydrated or fried banana or, preferably, plantain slices, which have a dark brown colour and an intense banana taste. Bananas have also been used in the making of jam. Unlike other fruits, it is difficult to extract juice from bananas because when compressed a banana simply turns to pulp.
Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), considered to be one of the forerunners of the common domesticated banana, are sold in markets in Indonesia.
It is reported that in Orissa, India, juice is extracted from the corm and used as a home remedy for the treatment of jaundice. In other places honey is mixed with mashed banana fruit and used for the same purpose.
Trade
Top Banana Producing Nations - 2005(in million metric tons)
India
16.8
Brazil
6.7
China
6.4
Ecuador
5.9
Philippines
5.8
Indonesia
4.5
Costa Rica
2.2
Mexico
2.0
Thailand
2.0
Colombia
1.6
Burundi
1.6
World Total
72.5
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[2]
Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing countries. In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main cultivars. Cooking bananas are very similar to potatoes in how they are used. Both can be fried, boiled, baked or chipped and have similar taste and texture when served. One green cooking banana has about the same calorie content as one potato.[citation needed]
In 2003, India led the world in banana production, representing approximately 23% of the worldwide crop, most of which was for domestic consumption. The four leading banana exporting countries were Ecuador, Costa Rica, Philippines, and Colombia, which together accounted for about two-thirds of the world's exports, each exporting more than 1 million tons. Ecuador alone provided more than 30% of global banana exports, according to FAO statistics.
The vast majority of producers are small-scale farmers growing the crop either for home consumption or for local markets. Because bananas and plantains will produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable source of food during the hunger season (that period of time when all the food from the previous harvest has been consumed, and the next harvest is still some time away). It is for these reasons that bananas and plantains are of major importance to food security.
Women in Belize sorting bananas and cutting them from bunches.
Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world. Most banana farmers receive a low unit price for their produce as supermarkets buy enormous quantities and receive a discount for that business. Competition amongst supermarkets has led to reduced margins in recent years which in turn has led to lower prices for growers. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole and Fyffes grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras. Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand high expertise, so the majority of independent growers are large and wealthy landowners of these countries. This has led to bananas being available as a "fair trade" item in some countries.
The banana has an extensive trade history beginning with the founding of the United Fruit Company (now Chiquita) at the end of the nineteenth century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee dominated the export economies of Central America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as much as 75% of the region's exports. As late as 1960, the two crops accounted for 67% of the exports from the region. Though the two were grown in similar regions, they tended not to be distributed together. The United Fruit Company based its business almost entirely on the banana trade, as the coffee trade proved too difficult for it to control. The term "banana republic" has been broadly applied to most countries in Central America, but from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama were actual "banana republics", countries with economies dominated by the banana trade.
Banana output in 2005
The countries of the European Union have traditionally imported many of their bananas from the former European island colonies of the Caribbean, paying guaranteed prices above global market rates. As of 2005, these arrangements were in the process of being withdrawn under pressure from other major trading powers, principally the United States. The withdrawal of these indirect subsidies to Caribbean producers is expected to favour the banana producers of Central America, in which American companies have an economic interest.
The United States has minimal banana production. 14,000 tons of bananas were grown in Hawaii in 2001.[7] Bananas have also been grown in Florida.
History
Early cultivation
The domestication of bananas took place in southeastern Asia. Many species of wild bananas still occur in New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000 BCE. [8] This would make the New Guinean highlands the place where bananas were first domesticated. It is likely that other species of wild bananas were later also domesticated elsewhere in southeastern Asia.
Actual and probable diffusion of bananas during Islamic times (700-1500 AD).[9]
The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the Middle East on the eve of the rise of Islam. There is some textual evidence that the prophet Muhammad was familiar with it. The spread of Islam was followed by the far reaching diffusion of bananas. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the ninth century. By the tenth century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt, from it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Spain. In fact, during the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered amongst the best in the Arab world.[9]
Some recent discoveries of banana phytoliths in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE [10] have triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the antiquity of banana cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were already known in Madagascar around that time. [11] The earliest evidence of banana cultivation in Africa before these recent discoveries dates to no earlier than late 6th century AD. [12] Muslim Arabs likely brought bananas from the east coast of Africa west to the Atlantic coast and further south to Madagascar.[9]
In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. The word banana is of West African origin, and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[13]
Plantation cultivation
In 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[citation needed] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available via merchant trade.[citation needed] Jules Verne references bananas with detailed descriptions so as not to confuse readers in his book Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).
In the early 20th cenntury, bananas began forming the basis of large commercial empires, exemplarized by the United Fruit Company, which created immense banana plantation especially in Central and South America. These were usually extremely commercially exploitative, and the term "Banana republic" was coined for states like Honduras and Guatemala, representing the fact that "servile dictatorships" were created and abetted by these companies and their political backers, for example in the USA.[14]
Cultivation
Fruits of wild-type bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.
Banana corms, used in the propagation of domesticated bananas.
While the original bananas contained rather large seeds, triploid (and thus seedless) cultivars have been selected for human consumption. These are propagated asexually from offshoots of the plant. The plant is allowed to produce 2 shoots at a time; a larger one for fruiting immediately and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" that will produce fruit in 6–8 months time. The life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or planting sites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates.
Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, which makes them sterile and unable to produce viable seeds. Lacking seeds, another form of propagation is required. This involves removing and transplanting part of the underground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical shoot that develops from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However, small sympodial corms, representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be left out of the ground for up to 2 weeks; they require minimal care and can be boxed together for shipment.
In some countries, bananas are commercially propagated by means of tissue culture. This method is preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as suckers for propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama disease).
Pests, diseases and natural disasters
Main article: List of banana and plantain diseases
Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for protection. The bags may be coated with pesticides.
Inspecting bananas for fruit flies.
While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar 'Cavendish' (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10-20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, has already suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, it lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, which threaten both commercial cultivation and the small-scale subsistence farming.[15][16] Some commentators have further remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial exploitation motives.[14]
Major diseases
Major afflictions of bananas include:
Panama Disease (Race 1) – fusarium wilt (a soil fungus). The fungus enters the plants through the roots and moves up with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums. These plug and cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt. Prior to 1960 almost all commercial banana production centered on the cultivar 'Gros Michel', which was highly susceptible to fusarium wilt. The cultivar 'Cavendish' was chosen as a replacement for 'Gros Michel' because out of the resistant cultivars it was viewed as producing the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required for shipping the 'Cavendish' banana, and its quality compared to 'Gros Michel' is debated.
Tropical Race 4 - a reinvigorated strain of Panama Disease first discovered in 1993. This is a virulent form of fusarium wilt that has wiped out 'Cavendish' in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Tropical Race 4 moves from one plantation to another and is its most likely route into Latin America. The Cavendish cultivar is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to be eliminated from commercial production by this disease. Unfortunately the only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.
Black Sigatoka - a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as Black Leaf Streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics due to infected banana leaves being used as packing material. It affects all of the main cultivars of bananas and plantains, impeding photosynthesis by turning parts of their leaves black, and eventually killing the entire leaf. Being starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow suffer premature ripening, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever increasing resistance to fungicidal treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare exceeding US$1000 per year. In addition to the financial expense there is the question of how long such intensive spraying can be justified environmentally. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received wide scale commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.
Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) - this virus is spread from plant to plant by aphids. It causes stunting of the leaves resulting in a "bunched" appearance. Generally, a banana plant infected with the virus will not set fruit, although mild strains exist in many areas which do allow for some fruit production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease other than BBTV. There is no cure for BBTV, however its effect can be minimised by planting only tissue cultured plants (In-vitro propagation), controlling the aphids, and immediately removing and destroying any plant from the field that shows signs of the disease.
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, 'Gros Michel' is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama Disease is not found. Likewise, 'Cavendish' is in no danger of extinction, but it may leave the shelves of the supermarkets for good if diseases make it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace 'Cavendish' on a scale needed to fill current demand, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are working on creating a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.
In Australia
Australia is relatively free of plant diseases and therefore prohibits imports. When Cyclone Larry wiped out Australia's domestic banana crop in 2006, bananas became relatively expensive, due to both low supply domestically and the existence of laws prohibiting banana imports. Prices have since fallen as production has reverted back to a steady rate.
In East Africa
Most bananas grown worldwide are used for local consumption. In the tropics, bananas, especially cooking bananas, represent a major source of food, as well as a major source of income for smallholder farmers. It is in the East African highlands that bananas reach their greatest importance as a staple food crop. In countries such as Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda per capita consumption has been estimated at 450 kg per year, the highest in the world. Ugandans use the same word "matooke" to describe both banana and food.
In the past, the banana was a highly sustainable crop with a long plantation life and stable yields year round. However with the arrival of the Black Sigatoka fungus, banana production in eastern Africa has fallen by over 40%. For example, during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes of bananas per hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes per hectare.
The situation has started to improve as new disease resistant cultivars have been developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO such as the FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste different from the traditionally grown banana which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by adding mulch and animal manure to the soil around the base of the banana plant, these new cultivars have substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been tried.
The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and CGIAR have started trials for genetically modified banana plants that are resistant to both Black Sigatoka and banana weevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder or subsistence farmers.
Allergic reactions
There are two forms of banana allergy. One is oral allergy syndrome which causes itching and swelling in the mouth or throat within one hour after ingestion and is related to birch tree and other pollen allergies. The other is related to latex allergies and causes urticaria and potentially serious upper gastrointestinal symptoms.[17]
Fibre
Banana plant, Luxor, Egypt - Bananas are continually cropped, fruits from higher in the inflorescence being taken before the lower part opens.
Textiles
The banana plant has long been a source of fibre for high quality textiles. In Japan, the cultivation of banana for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. The harvested shoots must first be boiled in lye to prepare the fibres for the making of the yarn. These banana shoots produce fibres of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibres of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, whereas the softest innermost fibres are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese banana cloth making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[18]
In another system employed in Nepal, the trunk of the banana plant is harvested instead, small pieces of which are subjected to a softening process, mechanical extraction of the fibres, bleaching, and drying. After that, the fibres are sent to the Kathmandu valley for the making of high end rugs with a textural quality similar to silk. These banana fibre rugs are woven by the traditional Nepalese hand-knotted methods, and are sold RugMark certified.
Paper
Main article: Banana paper
Banana fibre is also used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is used in two different senses: to refer to a paper made from the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or paper made from banana fiber, obtained from an industrialized process, from the stem and the non utilizable fruits. This paper can be either hand-made or made by industrialized machine.
Storage and transport
Banana storage room, Salt Lake City, 1913
In the current world marketing system, bananas are grown in the tropics where hurricanes are not common. The fruit therefore has to be transported over long distances and storage is necessary. To gain maximum life bunches are harvested before the fruit is fully mature. The fruit is carefully handled, transported quickly to the seaboard, cooled and shipped under sophisticated refrigeration. The basis of this procedure is to prevent the bananas producing ethylene which is the natural ripening agent of the fruit. This sophisticated technology allows storage and transport for 3-4 weeks at 13 degrees Celsius. On arrival at the destination the bananas are held at about 17 degrees Celsius and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days the fruit has begun to ripen and it is distributed for retail sale. It is important to note that unripe bananas can not be held in the home refrigerator as they suffer from the cold. After ripening some bananas can be held for a few days in the home refrigerator. They can be stored indefinitely frozen, then eaten like a Popsicle or cooked or as a banana mush.
Australian researchers have clearly shown that the use of refrigeration is no longer essential to extend the life of bananas after harvest.[19][20][21]
The above references report that the presence of carbon dioxide (which is produced by the fruit) extends the life and the addition of an ethylene absorbent further extends the life even at high temperatures. This simple technology involves packing the fruit in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This low cost treatment more than doubles the life at a range of temperatures and can give a life of up to 3-4 weeks without the need of refrigeration. The method is suitable for bunches, hands and even fingers.
The technology has been successfully tested over long distances and has been confirmed by researchers in a number of countries. The longest commercial trial was from North Queensland to New Zealand by unrefrigerated rail and ship over 18 days. Importers thought that the treated bananas were harvested on the day of arrival!
Although the technology has been extensively published in recognized scientific journals and has considerable cost savings (including energy savings) it has not been widely adopted. This report is to encourage banana growers in even poor countries to try out the technology themselves. It is suggested that a freshly harvested bunch be taken and a few hands be selected and each cut in two. Half of each hand should be sealed in a polyethylene bag; the other half should be left untreated. Even without the ethylene absorbent the beneficial effect should be obvious in a few days. Growers can then decide whether to try the full technology.
Usage in culture
Peels
The depiction of a person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. A 1906 comedy record produced by Edison Records features a popular character of the time, "Cal Stewart", claiming to describe his own such incident, saying:
I don't think much of a man what throws a bananer peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of a bananer what throws a man on the sidewalk, neither. ... my foot hit that bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and come down ker-plunk, and fer about a minnit I seen all the stars what 'stronomy tells about, and some that hain't been discovered yit. Wall jist as I was pickin' myself up, a little boy come runnin' cross the street and he said, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My mother didn't see you do it."
Arts
The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.[22]
The song Yes, We Have No Bananas was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally released in 1923. Since then the song has been re-recorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.
Symbols
Bananas are also humorously used as a phallic symbol due to similarities in size and shape. This is typified by the artwork of the debut album of The Velvet Underground, which features a banana on the front cover, yet on the original LP version, the design allowed the listener to 'peel' this banana to find a pink, phallic structure on the inside.
Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (June 2008)
The banana plant is a pseudostem that grows to 6 to 7.6 metres (20-25 feet) tall, growing from a corm. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (9 ft) long and 60 cm (2 ft) wide.[3] The banana plant is the largest of all herbaceous plants.[4] A single, sterile, male banana flower, also known as the banana heart is normally produced by each stem (though on rare occasions more can be produced - a single plant in the Philippines has five[5]). Banana hearts are used as a vegetable in Southeast Asia, steamed, in salads or eaten raw.[6] The female flowers are produced further up the stem and produce the actual fruit without requiring fertilization.
Properties
'Cavendish' bananas in a grocery store
Banana, raw, edible partsNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 90 kcal 370 kJ
Carbohydrates
22.84 g
- Sugars 12.23 g
- Dietary fiber 2.6 g
Fat
0.33 g
Protein
1.09 g
Vitamin A equiv. 3 μg
0%
Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.031 mg
2%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.073 mg
5%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.665 mg
4%
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg
7%
Vitamin B6 0.367 mg
28%
Folate (Vit. B9) 20 μg
5%
Vitamin C 8.7 mg
15%
Calcium 5 mg
1%
Iron 0.26 mg
2%
Magnesium 27 mg
7%
Phosphorus 22 mg
3%
Potassium 358 mg
8%
Zinc 0.15 mg
1%
One banana is 100–150 g.Percentages are relative to USrecommendations for adults.Source: USDA Nutrient database
Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple and red. Bananas can be eaten raw though some varieties are generally cooked first. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Unripe or green bananas and plantains are used for cooking various dishes such as banana pudding and are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Banana sap is extremely sticky and can be used as a practical adhesive. Sap can be obtained from the pseudostem, from the fruit peelings, or from the fruit flesh.
Most production for local sale is of green cooking bananas and plantains, as ripe dessert bananas are easily damaged while being transported to market. Even when transported only within their country of origin, ripe bananas suffer a high rate of damage and loss.
The commercial dessert cultivars most commonly eaten in temperate countries (species Musa acuminata or the hybrid Musa × paradisiaca, a cultigen) are imported in large quantities from the tropics. They are popular in part because, being a non-seasonal crop, they are available fresh year-round. In global commerce, by far the most important of these banana cultivars is 'Cavendish', which accounts for the vast bulk of bananas exported from the tropics. The Cavendish gained popularity in the 1950s after the previously mass produced cultivar, Gros Michel, became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which attacks the roots of the banana plant.
The most important properties making 'Cavendish' the main export banana are related to transport and shelf life rather than taste; major commercial cultivars rarely have a superior flavour compared to the less widespread cultivars. Export bananas are picked green, and then usually ripened in ripening rooms when they arrive in their country of destination. These are special rooms made air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", however, and may show up at the supermarket still fully green. While these bananas will ripen more slowly, the flavour will be notably richer, and the banana peel can be allowed to reach a yellow/brown speckled phase, and yet retain a firm flesh inside. Thus, shelf life is somewhat extended. The flavour and texture of bananas are affected by the temperature at which they ripen. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (57 and 59 °F) during transportation. At lower temperatures, the ripening of bananas permanently stalls, and the bananas will eventually turn grey.
It should be noted that Musa × paradisiaca is also the generic name for the common plantain, a coarser and starchier variant not to be confused with Musa acuminata or the Cavendish variety.
M. acuminata x balbisiana inflorescence, partially opened.
In addition to the fruit, the flower of the banana plant (also known as banana blossom or banana heart) is used in Southeast Asian, Tamil, Bengali and Kerala (India) cuisine, either served raw with dips or cooked in soups and curries. The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used, notably in the Burmese dish mohinga, Bengali and Kerala cooking. Bananas fried with batter is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. Banana fritters can be served with ice-cream as well. Bananas are also eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana leaf in Myanmar where bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray is an important part of traditional offerings to the Buddha and the Nats. The juice extract prepared from the tender core is used to treat kidney stones.
The leaves of the banana are large, flexible, and waterproof; they are used in many ways, including as umbrellas and to wrap food for cooking, carrying and packing cooked foods, and they are used to build houses in third world countries.. In south India, food is traditionally served on banana leaves in homes and some restaurants also follow the practice. Some farmers prefer to grow banana plants only for their leaves. Chinese zongzi (bamboo leaves are more commonly used where available). Mexican, and more specifically Oaxacan tamales and a local variety of lamb meat, or barbacoa tacos are often steamed in banana leaves, and the Hawaiian imu is often lined with them. Puerto Rican "pasteles" are boiled wrapped and tied inside the leaf.
Banana chips are a snack (and a healthy alternative to potato chips) produced from dehydrated or fried banana or, preferably, plantain slices, which have a dark brown colour and an intense banana taste. Bananas have also been used in the making of jam. Unlike other fruits, it is difficult to extract juice from bananas because when compressed a banana simply turns to pulp.
Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), considered to be one of the forerunners of the common domesticated banana, are sold in markets in Indonesia.
It is reported that in Orissa, India, juice is extracted from the corm and used as a home remedy for the treatment of jaundice. In other places honey is mixed with mashed banana fruit and used for the same purpose.
Trade
Top Banana Producing Nations - 2005(in million metric tons)
India
16.8
Brazil
6.7
China
6.4
Ecuador
5.9
Philippines
5.8
Indonesia
4.5
Costa Rica
2.2
Mexico
2.0
Thailand
2.0
Colombia
1.6
Burundi
1.6
World Total
72.5
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[2]
Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing countries. In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main cultivars. Cooking bananas are very similar to potatoes in how they are used. Both can be fried, boiled, baked or chipped and have similar taste and texture when served. One green cooking banana has about the same calorie content as one potato.[citation needed]
In 2003, India led the world in banana production, representing approximately 23% of the worldwide crop, most of which was for domestic consumption. The four leading banana exporting countries were Ecuador, Costa Rica, Philippines, and Colombia, which together accounted for about two-thirds of the world's exports, each exporting more than 1 million tons. Ecuador alone provided more than 30% of global banana exports, according to FAO statistics.
The vast majority of producers are small-scale farmers growing the crop either for home consumption or for local markets. Because bananas and plantains will produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable source of food during the hunger season (that period of time when all the food from the previous harvest has been consumed, and the next harvest is still some time away). It is for these reasons that bananas and plantains are of major importance to food security.
Women in Belize sorting bananas and cutting them from bunches.
Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world. Most banana farmers receive a low unit price for their produce as supermarkets buy enormous quantities and receive a discount for that business. Competition amongst supermarkets has led to reduced margins in recent years which in turn has led to lower prices for growers. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole and Fyffes grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras. Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand high expertise, so the majority of independent growers are large and wealthy landowners of these countries. This has led to bananas being available as a "fair trade" item in some countries.
The banana has an extensive trade history beginning with the founding of the United Fruit Company (now Chiquita) at the end of the nineteenth century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee dominated the export economies of Central America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as much as 75% of the region's exports. As late as 1960, the two crops accounted for 67% of the exports from the region. Though the two were grown in similar regions, they tended not to be distributed together. The United Fruit Company based its business almost entirely on the banana trade, as the coffee trade proved too difficult for it to control. The term "banana republic" has been broadly applied to most countries in Central America, but from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama were actual "banana republics", countries with economies dominated by the banana trade.
Banana output in 2005
The countries of the European Union have traditionally imported many of their bananas from the former European island colonies of the Caribbean, paying guaranteed prices above global market rates. As of 2005, these arrangements were in the process of being withdrawn under pressure from other major trading powers, principally the United States. The withdrawal of these indirect subsidies to Caribbean producers is expected to favour the banana producers of Central America, in which American companies have an economic interest.
The United States has minimal banana production. 14,000 tons of bananas were grown in Hawaii in 2001.[7] Bananas have also been grown in Florida.
History
Early cultivation
The domestication of bananas took place in southeastern Asia. Many species of wild bananas still occur in New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000 BCE. [8] This would make the New Guinean highlands the place where bananas were first domesticated. It is likely that other species of wild bananas were later also domesticated elsewhere in southeastern Asia.
Actual and probable diffusion of bananas during Islamic times (700-1500 AD).[9]
The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the Middle East on the eve of the rise of Islam. There is some textual evidence that the prophet Muhammad was familiar with it. The spread of Islam was followed by the far reaching diffusion of bananas. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the ninth century. By the tenth century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt, from it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Spain. In fact, during the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered amongst the best in the Arab world.[9]
Some recent discoveries of banana phytoliths in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE [10] have triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the antiquity of banana cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were already known in Madagascar around that time. [11] The earliest evidence of banana cultivation in Africa before these recent discoveries dates to no earlier than late 6th century AD. [12] Muslim Arabs likely brought bananas from the east coast of Africa west to the Atlantic coast and further south to Madagascar.[9]
In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. The word banana is of West African origin, and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[13]
Plantation cultivation
In 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[citation needed] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available via merchant trade.[citation needed] Jules Verne references bananas with detailed descriptions so as not to confuse readers in his book Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).
In the early 20th cenntury, bananas began forming the basis of large commercial empires, exemplarized by the United Fruit Company, which created immense banana plantation especially in Central and South America. These were usually extremely commercially exploitative, and the term "Banana republic" was coined for states like Honduras and Guatemala, representing the fact that "servile dictatorships" were created and abetted by these companies and their political backers, for example in the USA.[14]
Cultivation
Fruits of wild-type bananas have numerous large, hard seeds.
Banana corms, used in the propagation of domesticated bananas.
While the original bananas contained rather large seeds, triploid (and thus seedless) cultivars have been selected for human consumption. These are propagated asexually from offshoots of the plant. The plant is allowed to produce 2 shoots at a time; a larger one for fruiting immediately and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" that will produce fruit in 6–8 months time. The life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individual stools or planting sites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation dictates.
Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, which makes them sterile and unable to produce viable seeds. Lacking seeds, another form of propagation is required. This involves removing and transplanting part of the underground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical shoot that develops from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However, small sympodial corms, representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be left out of the ground for up to 2 weeks; they require minimal care and can be boxed together for shipment.
In some countries, bananas are commercially propagated by means of tissue culture. This method is preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as suckers for propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama disease).
Pests, diseases and natural disasters
Main article: List of banana and plantain diseases
Banana bunches are sometimes encased in plastic bags for protection. The bags may be coated with pesticides.
Inspecting bananas for fruit flies.
While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar 'Cavendish' (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10-20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, has already suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, it lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, which threaten both commercial cultivation and the small-scale subsistence farming.[15][16] Some commentators have further remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial exploitation motives.[14]
Major diseases
Major afflictions of bananas include:
Panama Disease (Race 1) – fusarium wilt (a soil fungus). The fungus enters the plants through the roots and moves up with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums. These plug and cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt. Prior to 1960 almost all commercial banana production centered on the cultivar 'Gros Michel', which was highly susceptible to fusarium wilt. The cultivar 'Cavendish' was chosen as a replacement for 'Gros Michel' because out of the resistant cultivars it was viewed as producing the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required for shipping the 'Cavendish' banana, and its quality compared to 'Gros Michel' is debated.
Tropical Race 4 - a reinvigorated strain of Panama Disease first discovered in 1993. This is a virulent form of fusarium wilt that has wiped out 'Cavendish' in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Tropical Race 4 moves from one plantation to another and is its most likely route into Latin America. The Cavendish cultivar is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time, Cavendish is almost certain to be eliminated from commercial production by this disease. Unfortunately the only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.
Black Sigatoka - a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as Black Leaf Streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics due to infected banana leaves being used as packing material. It affects all of the main cultivars of bananas and plantains, impeding photosynthesis by turning parts of their leaves black, and eventually killing the entire leaf. Being starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow suffer premature ripening, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever increasing resistance to fungicidal treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare exceeding US$1000 per year. In addition to the financial expense there is the question of how long such intensive spraying can be justified environmentally. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received wide scale commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.
Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) - this virus is spread from plant to plant by aphids. It causes stunting of the leaves resulting in a "bunched" appearance. Generally, a banana plant infected with the virus will not set fruit, although mild strains exist in many areas which do allow for some fruit production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease other than BBTV. There is no cure for BBTV, however its effect can be minimised by planting only tissue cultured plants (In-vitro propagation), controlling the aphids, and immediately removing and destroying any plant from the field that shows signs of the disease.
Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, 'Gros Michel' is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama Disease is not found. Likewise, 'Cavendish' is in no danger of extinction, but it may leave the shelves of the supermarkets for good if diseases make it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace 'Cavendish' on a scale needed to fill current demand, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are working on creating a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.
In Australia
Australia is relatively free of plant diseases and therefore prohibits imports. When Cyclone Larry wiped out Australia's domestic banana crop in 2006, bananas became relatively expensive, due to both low supply domestically and the existence of laws prohibiting banana imports. Prices have since fallen as production has reverted back to a steady rate.
In East Africa
Most bananas grown worldwide are used for local consumption. In the tropics, bananas, especially cooking bananas, represent a major source of food, as well as a major source of income for smallholder farmers. It is in the East African highlands that bananas reach their greatest importance as a staple food crop. In countries such as Uganda, Burundi and Rwanda per capita consumption has been estimated at 450 kg per year, the highest in the world. Ugandans use the same word "matooke" to describe both banana and food.
In the past, the banana was a highly sustainable crop with a long plantation life and stable yields year round. However with the arrival of the Black Sigatoka fungus, banana production in eastern Africa has fallen by over 40%. For example, during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes of bananas per hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes per hectare.
The situation has started to improve as new disease resistant cultivars have been developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO such as the FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste different from the traditionally grown banana which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by adding mulch and animal manure to the soil around the base of the banana plant, these new cultivars have substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been tried.
The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and CGIAR have started trials for genetically modified banana plants that are resistant to both Black Sigatoka and banana weevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder or subsistence farmers.
Allergic reactions
There are two forms of banana allergy. One is oral allergy syndrome which causes itching and swelling in the mouth or throat within one hour after ingestion and is related to birch tree and other pollen allergies. The other is related to latex allergies and causes urticaria and potentially serious upper gastrointestinal symptoms.[17]
Fibre
Banana plant, Luxor, Egypt - Bananas are continually cropped, fruits from higher in the inflorescence being taken before the lower part opens.
Textiles
The banana plant has long been a source of fibre for high quality textiles. In Japan, the cultivation of banana for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. The harvested shoots must first be boiled in lye to prepare the fibres for the making of the yarn. These banana shoots produce fibres of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibres of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, whereas the softest innermost fibres are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese banana cloth making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[18]
In another system employed in Nepal, the trunk of the banana plant is harvested instead, small pieces of which are subjected to a softening process, mechanical extraction of the fibres, bleaching, and drying. After that, the fibres are sent to the Kathmandu valley for the making of high end rugs with a textural quality similar to silk. These banana fibre rugs are woven by the traditional Nepalese hand-knotted methods, and are sold RugMark certified.
Paper
Main article: Banana paper
Banana fibre is also used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is used in two different senses: to refer to a paper made from the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or paper made from banana fiber, obtained from an industrialized process, from the stem and the non utilizable fruits. This paper can be either hand-made or made by industrialized machine.
Storage and transport
Banana storage room, Salt Lake City, 1913
In the current world marketing system, bananas are grown in the tropics where hurricanes are not common. The fruit therefore has to be transported over long distances and storage is necessary. To gain maximum life bunches are harvested before the fruit is fully mature. The fruit is carefully handled, transported quickly to the seaboard, cooled and shipped under sophisticated refrigeration. The basis of this procedure is to prevent the bananas producing ethylene which is the natural ripening agent of the fruit. This sophisticated technology allows storage and transport for 3-4 weeks at 13 degrees Celsius. On arrival at the destination the bananas are held at about 17 degrees Celsius and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days the fruit has begun to ripen and it is distributed for retail sale. It is important to note that unripe bananas can not be held in the home refrigerator as they suffer from the cold. After ripening some bananas can be held for a few days in the home refrigerator. They can be stored indefinitely frozen, then eaten like a Popsicle or cooked or as a banana mush.
Australian researchers have clearly shown that the use of refrigeration is no longer essential to extend the life of bananas after harvest.[19][20][21]
The above references report that the presence of carbon dioxide (which is produced by the fruit) extends the life and the addition of an ethylene absorbent further extends the life even at high temperatures. This simple technology involves packing the fruit in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This low cost treatment more than doubles the life at a range of temperatures and can give a life of up to 3-4 weeks without the need of refrigeration. The method is suitable for bunches, hands and even fingers.
The technology has been successfully tested over long distances and has been confirmed by researchers in a number of countries. The longest commercial trial was from North Queensland to New Zealand by unrefrigerated rail and ship over 18 days. Importers thought that the treated bananas were harvested on the day of arrival!
Although the technology has been extensively published in recognized scientific journals and has considerable cost savings (including energy savings) it has not been widely adopted. This report is to encourage banana growers in even poor countries to try out the technology themselves. It is suggested that a freshly harvested bunch be taken and a few hands be selected and each cut in two. Half of each hand should be sealed in a polyethylene bag; the other half should be left untreated. Even without the ethylene absorbent the beneficial effect should be obvious in a few days. Growers can then decide whether to try the full technology.
Usage in culture
Peels
The depiction of a person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. A 1906 comedy record produced by Edison Records features a popular character of the time, "Cal Stewart", claiming to describe his own such incident, saying:
I don't think much of a man what throws a bananer peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of a bananer what throws a man on the sidewalk, neither. ... my foot hit that bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and come down ker-plunk, and fer about a minnit I seen all the stars what 'stronomy tells about, and some that hain't been discovered yit. Wall jist as I was pickin' myself up, a little boy come runnin' cross the street and he said, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My mother didn't see you do it."
Arts
The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.[22]
The song Yes, We Have No Bananas was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally released in 1923. Since then the song has been re-recorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.
Symbols
Bananas are also humorously used as a phallic symbol due to similarities in size and shape. This is typified by the artwork of the debut album of The Velvet Underground, which features a banana on the front cover, yet on the original LP version, the design allowed the listener to 'peel' this banana to find a pink, phallic structure on the inside.
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